Technical Writing

Technical Writing: The Short Communication

| jaylazzo

Science story plots

After the opening comes the plot.

A small number of plots dominate literary fiction; nearly all stories are variations on them. One list of plots is the following:

1, Overcoming the monster
2. Rags to riches
3. The quest
4. Voyage and return
5. Rebirth
6. Comedy
7. Tragedy

It’s the same with science: few plots.

The kind of writing we will be illustrating here is the research article. With a little wordsmithing, you can always turn your scholarly work into a popular work.

Let’s begin with a common plot in experimental sciences, a deductive one:

Data —> Rule —> Conclusion

Data: “I did A, and got X. I did 30 trials.”
Rule: “If you do A and get X most of the time, you can conclude…”
Conclusion: “…That something in A causes X.”

Think of the Data here as an experiment that helps establish causality. Let’s thank the philosopher John Stuart Mill for coming out with about 4 or 5 basic plots or experiments or studies, that together establish causality.

These basic experiments are called Mill’s Methods. They consist of the methods of addition, subtraction, concomitant variation, and the method of residues; two are also combined, addition/subtraction. Examples:

  1. Addition. “I burn some tobacco leaves, I don’t get a high. I burn some tobacco leaves spiked with Cannabis leaves, I get a high. Therefore, Cannabis leaves cause a high.
  2. Subtraction. “I get a mixture of tobacco and Cannabis, and I painstakingly separate the leaf particles. I burn the tobacco part, I don’t get a high. Therefore, Cannabis leaves cause a high.
  3. Joint addition/subtraction. “I get tobacco leaves, mix it with Cannabis, and split the mix into two parts. I burn the mixture and get a high. I then take the other part, painstakingly separate the Cannabis, and burn what’s left, and I don’t get a high. Therefore, Cannabis leaves cause a high.” (This might be familiar to some of you as the “knock in/knock out” experiment in genetics: replace Cannabis with a foreign gene.”)
  4. Concomitant variation. “I get tobacco leaves, mix it with Cannabis in increasing concentrations. When I smoke the mix that has more Cannabis I get a faster high. When I smoke the mix with less Cannabis, slower high. No Cannabis, no high. Therefore, Cannabis leaves cause a high.”
  5. Residues. “Cannabis leaves contain at least 3 components: THC, tar, and proteins. I extract with solvents to give three preparations, each containing pure THC, pure tar, and pure proteins. I burn each. I only get high with THC. Therefore, THC in Cannabis leaves causes a high.

We may include supporting experiments, like standard curves, to ensure that the methods we use work well. We also use supporting experiments to test assumptions. Supporting experiments strengthen other experiments directly, and the conclusion indirectly.

The data (in our example, experiment + result) are then run through some rules. Examples of rules:

  1. If you do a t-test on two groups and get a p < 0.05, the treatment has an effect.
  2. If you do ANOVA on several groups and get a p < 0.05, at least one of the treatments has an effect.
  3. If your concomitant variation plot has a R2 > 0.75, there is a significant association between the two variables.

These are in fact statistical rules. Other rules include models, neural networks, a theory, a previously demonstrated hypothesis, any generalizable principle.

The conclusion then “follows” after the data are run through the rules. But the conclusion does not necessarily follow, unlike in a true deduction. The conclusion that comes out is “more or less” strong. It is strong if it is supported by several experiments, or better, lines of evidence. (I say “lines of evidence” because we don’t always do experiments. For example, we can do observational studies — no manipulation of the independent variables. Yes, there are statistical rules for that kind of work, too.)

As a rule of thumb (not written in stone) posters, short communications, and research articles differ by the number of lines of evidence:

  1. Poster: 1 to 2 lines of evidence.
  2. Short Communication: 1 to 3 lines of evidence. The reason they are published is because the writer thinks it is very important for people to know now.
  3. Research article: 4 lines at least, usually 6 being the minimum.

Now, let’s return to the deductive plot:

Data —> Rule —> Conclusion

Let’s add a few more “plot elements”: the warrant and the qualifier. These elements take account of the fact that science is inductive, but is using a deductive plot. How do you reconcile?

First, use warrants to support a rule. Examples:

  1. Who made that rule? What’s the reference journal?
  2. If the rule is a neural network, what are its components?
  3. If the rule is a mathematical model, who made it? Who said we could use that model in our case?
  4. What experiments or actions were done to optimize the model, or the method, or the machine, to say for sure that they work well on the data?

Second, use qualifiers to put limits to the conclusion, toning it down. For example,

“Assuming THC, tar, and protein are independent, then we conclude THC causes a high.”

Another sentence will convey the same idea: “Unless the THC preparation is contaminated by some of the two others, then we conclude that THC causes a high.”

Other common qualifiers include:

  1. “As far as we can tell…”
  2. “Within the values of Cannabis tested…”
  3. “Until we can measure ‘high’ more objectively, then we must say for now that THC causes a subjective high.”

We see that writing scientific articles can seem daunting. How much daunting you want in your life is your choice, and the choice of your collaborators. Most articles have multiple authors because so many lines of evidence, techniques, statistical tests are involved for one or two authors to do it all.

The Seatwork: Write a Short Communication

Let’s write a Short Communication.

For this exercise our Short Communication will use ACTIVE verbs. Think of it as writing a letter to scientist friends (which was how articles were once written). Thus, write your draft IN THE FIRST PERSON. Or 2nd or 3rd. Later, you may rewrite with passive verbs as befits the style of the journal.

Select an experiment you did in a class here or in high school. Write about it following the IMRaD structure. Use the Storytelling style of the Introduction.

Describe at most 2 lines of evidence in the Methods and Results, each with supporting experiments IF appropriate.

Give the warrants (e.g., citations) of the rules you refer to in the Discussion. Put the proper qualifiers in the Conclusion.

One page only.

Technical Writing: The Review of Literature

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Review of Literature

The Review of Literature is an extended Intro. Its aim is to set-up your Question and Answer, by summarizing what previous authors did. The Review sets up the reader to see a gap, which you will fill.

There are many ways to do a Review. One way is to see it as summarizing what is known about causes and effects. For example, working backwards:

1. Me: A —> X 

2. Author 1: B —> X

3. Author 2: B —> A

4. Author 3: B + Q —> X, no idea what that Q is

5. Author 4: Q —> X

6. Author 5: Q consists of A, D, and E; we don’t know what matters

7. Author 6: E has nothing to do with X

I said ‘working backwards’ because in a Review, my idea (#1) comes at the end. However, I am not saying that what previous authors have done automatically suggest A—>X. That hypothesis is a creative idea. If hypotheses automatically came out of a Review, we could just let ChatGPT do all our science for us. 

Reviews can also show the evolution of technologies:

1. Author 1: Machine A is 10% efficient in producing X.

2. Author 2: Machine B is 50% efficient in producing X.

3. Author 3: Machine B has proven to be dangerous.

4. Author 4: Machine B has a component C that can be replaced by D.

5. Me: Machine A, incorporating D, plus new component E is 75% efficient.

Reviews can also summarize the history of concepts, pointing out the gaps:

1. Author 1: A is X.

2. Author 2: criticized Author 1, and proposed that B is X.

3. Author 3: criticized Author 2 and said that B without C can’t be X.

4. Me: Author 3 is partly right, C is part of X’s definition but I replaced B with D, and logically I make more sense.

Reviews can also strengthen a hypothesis by combining ideas from previous authors. An example is the meta-analysis.

1. Author 1: A —> X from a trial with 200 mixed subjects.

2. Author 2: A —> X from a trial with 500 mixed subjects.

3. Author 3: A —> X from a trial with 700 mixed subjects.

4. Author 4: A —> X from a trial with 300 subjects but used a different method.

5. Author 5: A —> X from a trial of 50 subjects, but all female.

6. Author 6: A —> X(?) but criteria for X is not WHO-based.

4. Me: A —> X with 1,400 subjects from Authors 1 to 3. I excluded Authors 4, 5, and 6 because a) Author 4 used different methods from 1, 2, and 3; b) Author 5 used 50 subjects, all female; and c) Author 6 used a definition of disease X that is not updated by the WHO. 

Write a Review for a topic of your choice. Make it 2 pages at most.

Technical Writing: The Introduction and Logical Structures

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The Introduction and logical structures

The Introduction builds up what follows. It also gives the reader some information to help him or her decide what to expect, how reading will meet the reader’s needs. A well-written Introduction will motivate the reader to continue.

I present two styles of Introductions: the storytelling style, and the essay style.

Storytelling style

Situation [something we know]: many spend hours on netflix

Crisis/Controversy [something we don’t know or thought we knew]: but the hours suggest it’s pathological in some cases

Question: is netflix addictive?

Answer: yes, and I will explain it through the pleasure/addiction path “Netflix —> dopamine [new] —> addiction”

Essay style

What is this about: This is about Netflix addiction.

Why am I writing it, and why should you read it: It’s a problem. Be aware.

What do you need to know to understand it: Netflix, addiction.

Format. Process: how Netflix —> dopamine [new] —> addiction

The Intro is the first and the last part of the document you compose.

Logical structures

In a previous lesson we looked at the Story structure. The story is an example of an inductive structure. What are others?

Common structures include deduction, induction, process or series of events, members of a class, parts of a whole, and the dialectic (which we already took up). I call these structures “logical” because they arrange ideas in a consistent way. The order or arrangement corresponds to what our mind finds easy to process. For example, the mind appears wired to make sense of reality through stories. The mind learns through association. It sees or creates patterns. It judges based on time sequence, interpreting as cause an event that came prior to another, the effect.

A. Deduction

In its simplest form the deduction contains three parts: a minor premise (data), a major premise (rule), and the conclusion which follows necessarily if the data and the rule are true. The classic example is the syllogism:

Data: Aristotle is a man.

Rule: All men are mortal.

Conclusion: Aristotle is mortal.

The syllogism can take the form of a conditional “If/Then” statement.

Rule: If it rains, the road gets wet.

Data: It rained.

Conclusion: The road got wet.

The deduction follows rules by virtue of which some syllogisms and conditionals are valid and others are invalid. For example, this conditional is invalid.

Rule: If it rains, the road gets wet.

Data: The road is wet.

Conclusion: It rained. 

But this one is valid:

Rule: If it rains, the road gets wet.

Data: The road is not wet.

Conclusion: It did not rain. 

The rules that govern deductions are covered by the subject of Logic. It is a fascinating subject, but is beyond the scope of this course.

B. Induction

Take the previous syllogism:

Rule: If it rains, the road gets wet.

Data: The road is not wet.

Conclusion: It did not rain.

But we knew it rained. So why is the road dry? Well, on some days the road is too hot and the rain too little; on other days the winds are too strong, evaporation is so fast. Heat and wind are factors that a) can vary from one day to another; or b) are only two among many, most of which we ignore, or assume, or will never know. But if we observed enough days, variations in all those known and unknown factors will “even out” enough for us to make the conclusion: rain —> wet road.

Humans are inductive by instinct. But sometimes a handful of examples are not enough to make a conclusion, e.g., ivermectin was thought to be cure for COVID based on a) anecdotal evidence, and b) uncontrolled bias in cited studies. 

And so induction has rules, too. These rules are covered by experimental design, clinical research design, statistics, and more arcane ones such as the rules that operate inside artificial intelligence programs. Again, a fascinating subject that is beyond the scope of this course.

A common induction format in science is IMRaD. Storytelling itself is inductive especially if used to argue, e.g., a court case.

C. Process, chain of events

Stories are typically a chain of events: first this happened, then this, etc. A description of a process or instructions are also like this.

A chain of cause and effect is another.

“One thing led to another, therefore my client isn’t guilty.” 

The “therefore” indicates that the chain was used as an argument. 

Processes have rules. One, you can’t leave out an essential step, nor allow steps to be assumed without basis. Another is, every step must be true, or else you might end up on a slippery slope argument, such as

Why are fire trucks red?

A firetruck has 4 wheels and 3 men.

4 x 3 equals 12.

There are 12 inches in a ruler.

There is a ruler in Russia.

Russia is Red.

That’s why a fire truck is red.

D. Parts of a whole

“The insect’s body is made up of three regions: head, thorax, abdomen. In the head we find the eyes and antennae. In the thorax we find the legs and the wings. In the abdomen we find…”. 

You got the idea. Parts can be conceptual, e.g., 

“This policy will be examined from three angles: Practicability, Needs, and Benefits.”

One rule with parts is that since they are potentially numerous, infinite even, choose a level of detail that is appropriate to your purpose, your resources, and your audience’s purpose.

Avoid banality: 

“My policy paper has three parts: intro, body, and conclusion,” 

is banal. Better, write in the intro

 “My policy paper will examine three aspects of the policy: practicability, needs, and benefits.” 

You’re giving it an intro, a body, and a conclusion anyway, so no need to announce it.

E. Members of classes

A familiar example of this format is when we name a new species and then discuss why it belongs to this kingdom, phylum, class, family, order, genus, species. This is also the preferred format when, say, classifying 

“Problems of the lockdowns include physical, mental, and economic. Under physical we have…”

F. Dialectic

We have alread discussed the thesis, antithesis, synthesis. This structure was invented in the Middle Ages, implying that structures were made by people who solved problems and then tried to codify how they solved them. The PNB format of policy papers was invented to summarize the persuasive parts of a policy speech. Even the 5-point structure of stories was invented in Classical Greece, although storytelling itself is as old as our race.

G. Other formats

Other ways of organizing ideas include “Pros and Cons”, “Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats”, “Compare and Contrast”, “Practicability, Needs, Benefits” and “Point, Reason, Example, Point”. In criticism of oral presentations I use “Manner, Matter, Method”, or the more entertaining “Kiss, Kick, Kiss”. There are many more.

The point is: organized ideas are easier to understand. The brain works through pigeonholing. 

Rules about lists

We see from the discussion above that a structure organizes ideas, and the structure’s name, in plural, is a kind of title for the list it heads. For example, the list 

“data, rule, conclusion” 

is headed by a plural noun “arguments”. Episodes are “important events in the last 10 years”, “head, thorax, and abdomen” are “parts”. These examples lead to the first of 3 rules about lists:

Items on a list must be described by a “single” plural noun.

Two more rules help to decide what go in a list. These are called the MECE Rules. As much as possible:

Items on a list must be mutually exclusive (no overlaps).

Items on a list must be comprehensively exhaustive.

One way to make your list comprehensively exhaustive is to work on the plural noun that is the heading of that list. For example, you wish to talk about the damages brought about by the pandemic. Here are many potential ideas:

1. “The top three psychological damages brought about by lockdowns” —> a list of 3 items; you justify in the text “Who said these are the top 3?” Also, putting “psychological” means you ignore other damages that are not psychological.

2. “Here are 5 examples of story plots.” There are anywhere from 7 to 30 standard plots depending on who you ask. “Examples”, in contrast to #1, don’t require you to justify. You may do that, of course.

3. “Organisms responsible for disease include bacteria, fungi, and others.” That’s a list of 3 items that is exhaustive. Not a superb example, but you get the idea.

A final recommendation about lists, not a rule:

Limit any list (at same level) to three items at most.

So, if you have a list of 7 items, group them.

These rules are not written in stone. It may be good to violate them, for example, use a list of ONE, or a list of 10, e.g., The 10 Commandments. Still, in general, following these rules make your writing more understandable.

Stories as maps

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The moral of a story is like a cartographic map of the world or model of a scientific phenomenon.

Morals, map, model (3M): their purpose is to help one navigate the world.

  1. Story morals help one navigate the ethical world.
  2. Cartographic maps help one navigate the physical world.
  3. Models (including metaphors and analogies) help one navigate the world of ideas.
Image downloaded from: https://historytech.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/map-of-world2.png

(Image downloaded: https://historytech.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/map-of-world2.png)

I will use the term map to refer to morals, cartographic maps, and models.

The map is not the territory. Maps present only the information required for the purpose. Maps are changeable, subject to updates. They also come in versions designed for a specific use. Examples:

  1. Story morals or stories can be as long as novels, or as short as elevator pitches, i.e., about 1-2 minutes. It is a good idea to read fiction produced by good writers, because those stories help you to see how people are different from each other. Good stories are great works of psychology. My favorite for this kind of story is Theodore Dostoevsky.
  2. Cartographic maps could be Google Maps or paper maps. The Mercator Projection, for example, accurately represents distance for the same latitude, but poorly represents the relative sizes of countries.
  3. Models could be schematic diagrams, drawing, graphs, flowcharts, equations. Drawn models are very common in scientific work.

It is always a great idea to begin a talk (e.g., thesis defense or any presentation in class) with a short story, i.e., no more than a few seconds to narrate. The story becomes a map to help listeners understand the rest of the presentation more easily.

Two figures of speech work very much like models and stories: analogy and metaphor.

Analogy and metaphor make a comparison between two things, but they differ in their structure and purpose.

An analogy compares two things that are alike in some way but different in others. Analogies explain or clarify a concept by comparing it to something that is more familiar or easier to understand. For example, “the cell is like a computer” compares the cell’s ability to process materials to a computer’s ability to process data.

A metaphor describes one thing in terms of another, asserting that one thing is another thing. Metaphors create vivid imagery and evoke an emotional response in the reader or listener. For example, “life is a journey” compares the ups and downs of life to the twists and turns of a journey.

Analogies and metaphors can be thought of as stories where the reader or listener fills in the elements of the story like character and plot from a prompt made by the writer.

These figures of speech play help scientists explain complex ideas and theories in terms that are more accessible and relatable to a wider audience.

For example, a biologist might use the analogy of a computer or factory to explain how cells work, or an astronomer a clock to explain the movement of the planets. Analogies can also be used to help scientists explore new ideas and develop new theories by comparing them to existing ones.

Metaphors help scientists communicate their ideas in a way that is both clear and engaging. Scientists create mental images that are more vivid and memorable, which can make their ideas easier to understand and more likely to be remembered. For example, the double helix structure of DNA is often described as a twisted ladder, which helps people visualize this important molecule and understand how it works.

Regardless of the map, for you to use it requires that you thoroughly understand the territory you want to represent. It is often harder to give a short talk than a long one — harder to draw a map than to just tell people “go out there and check it out”.

(Q.C. 230225)

Technical Writing: A Storytelling exercise

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Now the seat work.

Exercise: Collaborative Storytelling

Objective: To practice storytelling skills and build collaboration skills.

Materials:

  1. Pen and paper for each group
  2. Story prompts (see below)

Instructions:

  1. Group the class into 3’s.
  2. Assign one laptop per group that can be passed around. Or do musical chairs.
  3. Choose a story prompt from the list the teacher will provide.
  4. Each student should take turns contributing to the story.
  5. Be creative, have fun, go crazy with the story.
  6. After 10-15 minutes, we will have each group tell their story.

Story prompts:


a. A group of friends go on a camping trip and discover a mysterious cave.
b. A young wizard must retrieve a magical object to save their kingdom.
c. A family of aliens crash-land on Earth and must find a way to repair their spaceship.

Extension: If there is time after the storytelling we will try to answer a few questions, such as:

a. What was challenging about working together to create a story?
b. How did you make sure that everyone had a chance to contribute?
c. What did you enjoy about the storytelling process?
d. How might you use storytelling in other areas of your life?

Technical Writing: Storytelling

| jaylazzo

Story telling

We have been telling stories since the beginning of time. From the earliest cave drawings to movies, books, and scientific articles stories entertained, educated, and connected people from all eras and places. Storytelling conveys complex ideas and emotions in a way that engages the listener and evokes a powerful response. Stories are more effective than essays.


Stories evoke empathy and understanding. A well-told story transports us into the world of the characters where we can feel their emotions and live their experiences. Stories help us understand perspectives that are different from our own. The stories of people from different backgrounds and cultures give us a deeper understanding of their world, which can help us build bridges and connect on a deeper level.


Stories are powerful tools for education. They help us understand complex topics in a way that is engaging and memorable. Stories simplify complex ideas and make them more relatable. By presenting information in a story format, we more easily remember ideas and we more easily connect them to a larger context.


Storytelling is also a tool for healing and personal growth. Many people tell stories to process their own experiences and emotions. Journaling, talking to a therapist, and trading adventures around the campfire, help people work through difficult emotions and find meaning in experience. Listening to the stories of others helps us find comfort and inspiration in our own struggles.


Stories inspire action and create change. Stories have motivated people throughout history to fight for social justice, environmental causes, and political change. Stories of people who have overcome adversity or fought against injustice inspire us to take action ourselves. Stories help us build a sense of community and collective action that can drive meaningful change.

Elements of a story

All stories must have 5 elements (this isn’t written in stone) and it starts with the title:

  1. Setting: Time and place in which the story takes place, atmosphere and realism.
  2. Plot: Clear and compelling; see below
  3. Character: Believable and relatable, with their own motives, personalities, and drama.
  4. Theme: The underlying message or meaning of the story. It should be consistent throughout the story.
  5. Point of view: First person, third person, etc.).

The Plot

This is the more important part for our purposes. Here I show how each part of standard storytelling also describes the parts we use in scientific writing: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion (IMRaD).

A plot has five main parts:

  1. Opener: The beginning of the story. The author introduces the characters and setting, and sets the stage for the conflict. For example, the protagonist is living some kind of ‘normal life’ but has a greater desire or goal. The Introduction corresponds to this part.
  2. Incident: The author introduces the main problem or conflict that the protagonist will have to face. Some kind of “catalyst”, an event, an episode, sets the rest in motion, forcing the protagonist out of their comfort zone. This is the part of the Introduction where we introduce the problem and hypothesis.
  3. Crisis: The conflict of the story becomes more intense. The protagonist pursues their goal and is tested along the way. “Tested?” That corresponds to the Methods.
  4. Climax: The highest point of action in the story. The conflict has reached its limit and something must change that will impact the rest of the story. This obviously is the Results section, especially the key result.
  5. Ending: The end of the story in which the reader learns what becomes of the protagonist and other characters as a result of the climax. The protagonist a) gets what they want, b) doesn’t get what they want, or c) doesn’t get what they want, but realizes that they have something that’s more important. This is the Discussion and Conclusion part.

This structure dates to the Greece of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides.

Research Ethics: Introduction

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Welcome to MBB 194, Research Ethics. In this case-based course we will learn how to evaluate the ethical nature of activities in the light of commonly held values in the science field.

Scientific research is a complex activity guided by a number of ethical values that help ensure the integrity and reliability of research results. The most important values in scientific research include:

  1. Honesty and Integrity: Researchers must be truthful about their findings, methods, and potential conflicts of interest, and must not manipulate or fabricate data. They must also be transparent in their reporting and sharing of results.
  2. Objectivity and Impartiality: Researchers should not be influenced by personal biases, beliefs, or interests. They should strive to approach their research with an open mind and be willing to revise their hypotheses or conclusions in light of new evidence.
  3. Respect for Human Dignity and Autonomy: Researchers must respect the dignity and autonomy of human subjects, including their right to privacy, informed consent, and protection from harm. Researchers must take steps to ensure that participants are fully informed about the risks and benefits of participating in research and that their rights and welfare are protected.
  4. Confidentiality and Privacy: Researchers must take steps to ensure that personal information is kept confidential and that participants’ privacy is respected.
  5. Responsible Conduct of Research: Researchers must comply with laws and regulations governing research, and adhere to ethical standards and guidelines practiced in their field. They must conduct research in a safe and ethical manner, and that any potential risks to human subjects or the environment are minimized.
  6. Academic freedom. Researchers value the to choose the problems they want to investigate and the approaches of study. Academic freedom, like any right, is not absolute: some methods accepted in the past are not considered ethical today, such as human experimentation without prior informed consent. The tenure system is a way to recognize one’s ability to choose research problems that do not impinge, and instead promote, the research of others.

Adhering to these values wins the trust of the public and trust among members of the research community, which help bring the benefits of science to society.

In the next section we describe the scope of ethics beginning with the three concepts that are often used interchangeably but in fact have distinct meanings: legal, ethical, and moral.

Technical Writing: The lead Sheet and the Dialectic

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Techniques for the Day: The Lead Sheet and the Dialectic.

Project for the Day: A Letter to the Editor

Why am I writing this?

Why should my reader read this?

Always ask yourself these two questions. The first refers to your personal reason. For example, Why am I writing this? I’m writing this because:

  1. I discovered a truth and I want to tell others about it.
  2. I feel I have to get this off my chest.
  3. I want to make people laugh.
  4. I want to convince the reader to do something or to think in a certain way.

The second question refers to the reader’s reason. For example, Why should my reader read this? She should read this because:

  1. She will find this truth useful to her work.
  2. She will develop empathy for another human being.
  3. She will be entertained.
  4. She will swing into action and get this done.

If both questions are clear, you have effective message: transmitted, received, and acted upon.

The message determines what content and construction goes in the text. It also determines what content goes out:

  1. Irrelevant, inaccurate information.
  2. Boring, insincere feelings.
  3. Lame jokes, cliched witticisms.
  4. Unconvincing, unsupported arguments.

It also determines what construction goes out.

  1. Words foreign to the reader, like jargon.
  2. Unnecessary adverbs, adjectives you can’t hear, taste, feel, smell, and see.
  3. Phrases that slow down the pace unnecessarily.
  4. Bad grammar.

Writing is mostly about putting in, editing mostly about throwing out. The problem for many writers is that they throw out too early. This slows down the work, and it also allows many insights to escape into the wind. In your first draft focus on putting in, and to hell with grammar and style.

The first draft is NEVER pretty. Want to get used to not pretty? Set your font color to WHITE (on a white page) and type like crazy. Want to get used to crazy? Try The Most Dangerous Writing App (https://www.squibler.io/dangerous-writing-prompt-app). Set a time, say 10 minutes, and type and type and type. If you pause, the text starts to fade. Pause for 5 sec before 10 min is over and everything you typed disappears, forever.

Our assignment for today is to write a Letter to the Editor of a scientific journal. Why do we write Letters?

We write to add or correct information. Perhaps you spotted an incomplete experiment. Or, you want to point out the author was not bold enough with his conclusions.

Some people have made it their business to alert editors to fraud. As of writing, 290 published articles on Covid-19 research have been retracted from around the world thanks to the sleuthing work at Retraction Watch.

Our ambitions are simpler, and they go like this.

Read a short article on a science or engineering subject.

Next, break it up. Such as “argument 1”, “argument 2”, “conclusion”, “evidence”. Or, “issue #1”, “issue #2”. Two is a good number to start with. You can further subdivide from here.

After identifying the parts, identify your values and your aims; these will 1) rank the parts to comment on; and 2) determine your point of view. Are you a stickler for statistical rigor or image quality, and aim to clarify them? Do you have a strong ethical or philosophical opinion against one of the issues, and aim to argue your point? Do you belong to the grammar police, and aim to correct the author’s style? Since you are writing from your point of view, no one is assuming you have the final word.

Then, gather some information to support your text.

But before writing your letter, summarize your project in ONE SHORT SENTENCE. For example: “This article is unfair because it only considers the views of one group of people.”

Technique: The Lead Sheet

That summary is the lead sheet. A lead sheet is a synopsis, a reference to keep you on track. The one above is one sentence long. If you were writing a research article or a novel, the lead sheet will never exceed 1 page. And it can take many forms: mind map, flow chart, bullet points. It could take the form of a storyboard, a favorite technique of scriptwriters. Or, it’s written out on the palm of your hand, or stored as an image in your head.

The lead sheet is not written in stone. Allow yourself to change direction when thus inspired.

Technique: The Dialectic structure of arguing

Armed with a lead sheet, write your Letter. Follow this common structured called the dialectic. It consists of three parts: thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.

Assignment: Letter to the Editor

Lead sheet: “This article is unfair because it only considers the views of one group of people.”

Letter:

  1. Thesis. Dear Editor, in your most recent edition, Dr. Eastwest argued that the mass lay-offs we are seeing in the tech industry anticipate the replacement of these jobs by artificial intelligence. He presented evidence in the form of various recent apps, enumerates which jobs each app will replace, and extrapolates app evolution and job loss using a time series model. He concludes from that evidence and his model that half of all jobs will be replaced in 25 years.
  2. Antithesis. However, I do not agree with his analysis because he only considers the problem from the point of view of one group of people, his own, AI experts, and their assumptions. Had he considered the views of corporate stakeholders he would not have blamed AI so much. As shown by Dr. Northsouth, in the Journal of Corporate Governance, the layoffs are the result of companies dealing with decreased revenues from the inflation, and increased cost from the servicing of massive debts incurred in 2021-22. Besides, most of the “dangerous” AI described by Dr. Eastwest were only released recently and fail to account for the fact that layoffs began early in 2022. Besides, his model does not account for the possibility of AI actually creating new kinds of careers, such as promt engineering.
  3. Synthesis. Perhaps companies would not have laid off so many people had there been no viable replacements for them. In other words, it’s plausible that had ChatGPT come out later we wouldn’t see 120,000 tech jobs downsized in the 3 months. Nonetheless, I think we should look at direct causes because they are more likely solvable by direct solutions. Limiting the analysis to contributory causes that are not direct, and arguing from models that could very well be wrong, prevents us from reaching good solutions. Most respectfully, XXX.

In the next module, we will take up Storytelling techniques.

Technical writing: Introduction

| jaylazzo

(This comes from a manual I’m writing for my technical writing class.)

Welcome to Scientific Writing, MBB 100.

You are here because you want to improve your ability to write. Scientific writing is, indeed, a critical skill for researchers and professionals in various fields, allowing them to effectively communicate complex information to diverse audiences. In this course, we will cover the principles of scientific writing, including audience analysis, organization, clarity, conciseness, and style, as well as practical techniques for drafting, revising, and editing scientific documents, such as research papers, technical reports, and grant proposals, to effectively convey scientific information to readers.

Why do we need to communicate well?

It’s our professional mandate. It’s a role we scientists have been carrying out dating back to the earliest scientific publications which allowed researchers to disseminate their findings, ideas, and discoveries to a global audience in a clear, concise, and credible manner, while also fostering the development of new knowledge and advancing scientific inquiry. We share our work so that others can build on them, that’s how scientific knowledge and understanding advances. We also write to receive feedback on our work and establish our expertise in a particular field. We write to secure funding or other support for further research.

We write in order to advance in our careers. Our production in terms of papers in scientific journals and grant proposals are measures of productivity, impact, and contributions to our field. Personal letters and notes are not often published or evaluated, but they are part of the exchanges that lead to publications.

What will we learn in this course?

We will learn a number of standards and techniques. The standards of scientific writing facilitate understanding within the community. These standards include:

  1. Audience: Consider who your audience is and tailor your writing to their level of expertise and understanding.
  2. Clarity: Use clear, concise language and avoid jargon or overly technical terms that may be confusing to readers.
  3. Structure: Organize your paper in a logical and coherent manner with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion.
  4. Citations: Make sure to properly cite all sources used in your paper and follow the appropriate citation style guidelines.
  5. Accuracy: Ensure that your paper is factually accurate and supported by evidence from reliable sources.
  6. Formatting: Follow any specific formatting guidelines provided by the journal or publication you are submitting your paper to.
  7. Revision: Edit and revise your paper to ensure it is free of errors and effectively communicates your research findings and ideas.

These standards also comprise techniques that ensure those standards are met. For instance, logical techniques for structuring an argument in a biology paper include deduction, inference, and story-telling. Furthermore, some logical standards have a long tradition, such as the IMRaD format, while stylistic standards in the area of language and style continue to evolve, such as the use of the active voice of verbs.

Of the techniques, I would like to emphasize Revision. I would like to do this to calm a common fear, especially with young writers: the fear that you won’t write well enough.

Let’s settle that right now: I don’t want you to write well. I want you to edit well. I do not expect pretty first drafts, not even perfect fifth drafts. I would like to make it clear that the art of writing is editing.

Let’s take a look at editing first; we will do some writing later. As we look into editing, let me address the elephant in the room, namely, ChatGPT. Good or bad? It’s a tool. The first time I tried it, ChatGPT gave me a short essay in less than 30 sec which I found lame; I edited it over the next 20 minutes.

Let’s do that now. I gave ChatGPT this promt: “Write an essay about the art of writing.” This is what it gave me:

Writing is a form of artistic expression that has the power to captivate, inspire, and enlighten its readers. Whether it takes the form of literature, journalism, or even business communication, the art of writing is essential to the way we communicate with each other.

At its core, the art of writing is about finding a voice and using it to convey meaning. This means being able to communicate complex ideas in a clear and concise way, while also imbuing one’s writing with personality and style. It requires both creativity and discipline, as well as an ability to balance structure and spontaneity.

One of the key elements of effective writing is a deep understanding of the audience. Writers must be able to anticipate the needs, interests, and perspectives of their readers in order to create content that resonates. This requires research, empathy, and an ability to connect with people on a fundamental level.

Another important aspect of the art of writing is the ability to edit and revise. Good writing is rarely the result of a first draft; instead, it often requires multiple rounds of revisions and refinements. This involves not just correcting grammar and spelling, but also refining the tone, structure, and flow of the piece.

The art of writing is also closely tied to the art of storytelling. Whether it takes the form of a novel, a memoir, or a news article, effective writing often relies on the power of narrative to engage and captivate readers. This means creating characters, setting a scene, and building tension and suspense, all while remaining true to the underlying message or theme.

Finally, the art of writing is a craft that requires constant practice and refinement. It is not something that can be mastered overnight, but rather something that requires a lifelong commitment to learning and growth. Whether through taking writing classes, attending workshops, or simply continuing to write on a regular basis, the best writers are always striving to improve their skills and expand their horizons.


In conclusion, the art of writing is a powerful form of artistic expression that has the ability to change minds, provoke thought, and inspire action. Whether through novels, journalism, or other forms of communication, writers have the ability to use words to shape the world around them. By honing their craft, understanding their audience, and telling compelling stories, they can become true masters of the art of writing.

Not bad; but it’s not me. It’s important for your writing to “be you”; I’ll tell you more about that after we edit this.

Here are my comments, underlined inside [braces]. The edited version is in boldface. Do not consider these the best suggestions:

One of the [key elements, generic word, element ] of effective writing is a deep understanding of the audience. Writers must be able to anticipate the needs, interests, and perspectives of their readers [in order, not necessary] to create content that resonates. This requires research, empathy, and an ability to [connect with people on a fundamental level., fundamental is too long]


A good writer must know his or her audience. The writer must be able to anticipate the needs, interests, and perspectives of his or her reader to create content that resonates. This requires research, empathy and an ability to connect with people on a deep level.


Another important aspect of the art of writing is the [ability to edit and revise., ability to is too long] Good writing is [rarely, really?] the result of a first draft; [instead, it often requires multiple rounds of revisions and refinements., too long] This involves not just correcting grammar and spelling, but also refining the tone, structure, and flow of the piece.


The true art of writing is editing. Good writing is never the result of a first draft. It comes from rounds of revision and refinement made on points of grammar, spelling, tone, structure, and flow of the piece.


The art of writing is also [closely, adverbs are often excessive] tied to the art of storytelling. [Whether it takes the form of a novel, a memoir, or a news article, jumping then returning], effective writing often relies on the power of narrative to engage and captivate readers. [This means, not necessary] creating characters, setting a scene, and building tension and suspense, all while remaining true to the underlying message or theme.

Good writers also know how to tell a story. Stories engage and captivate readers, whether they take the form of a novel, a memoir, or a news article.

Finally, the art of writing [is a craft, too long] that requires constant practice and refinement. It is not [something, generic] that can be mastered overnight, but rather [something, generic] that requires a lifelong commitment to learning and growth. [Whether through taking writing classes, attending workshops, or simply continuing to write on a regular basis, jumping then returning] the best writers are always striving to improve their skills and expand their horizons.

Finally, the craft of writing requires constant practice. It requires a lifelong commitment to learning and growth, and it cannot be mastered overnight. The best writers are always striving to improve their skills, whether through taking classes, attending workshops, or simply writing on a regular basis.

In conclusion, [the art of, not necessary] writing is a powerful form of artistic expression that [has the ability, can] to change minds, provoke thought, and inspire action. [Whether through novels, journalism, or other forms of communication, repetition], writers have the ability to use words to shape the world around them. By honing their craft, understanding their audience, and telling compelling stories, they can become true masters of the art of writing.

In conclusion, writing is a powerful form of expression that can change minds, provoke thought, and inspire action. Writers shape the world around them. One can become a true master of the art by honing one’s craft, especially the skill of telling stories.

YOUR writing is evidence YOU passed through this earth. You can’t really hide your originality. Your writing has “signatures” such that we can say “here, he makes an insight”, “here, he faced a dilemma”. These little things make writing human. A technique that helps you to write in your personal style is to write in the first person. I recommend you do this for all your drafts; just edit later according to prescribed standards.

So for the exercise. Answers the question: If I could spend my WHOLE LIFE answering just ONE question, what would that question be? Why is that question so important to me? Write a paragraph in the first person.

Let me leave you with advice: write at every chance.

I carry a notebook. Whenever I have a bit of time, like waiting for Grab, I write. No concern with grammar or style or completeness. What do I write about? I have a pipeline of topics, and it keeps growing. I type up some of my essays in files designed for publication as a book or blog, and of course, research articles.

To motivate myself, I try to make writing a sensory experience. I like the feel of a fountain pen on paper (I use a LAMY with a special flat tip) and thick paper. I think a mechanical keyboard is pretty cool, with customizable lights and sounds. A friend of mine who is now writing her 14th published book, does all her writing on her iPhone, in cafes, museums, or any public space.

Writing helps you think better by slowing down your emotions, giving you space for careful thought. If you feel like sending a nastygram, and you want to do it by email, type it out, but wait at least half an hour before pressing SEND. Better yet, rant in longhand. Then burn it.

In the next meeting, we will talk about the Letter to the Editor. I will talk to you about the technique of writing Lead Sheet. I’ll also introduce you to another software I use, JDarkroom.

(Q.C., 230214)